Strength is Never a Weakness: Education

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Friday, 24 May 2019

Defining Arousal and Anxiety

Hello Everyone!

I hope all is well

Another new post on the blog, this time it is on arousal and anexiety. This is a poster presentation converted into a blog post.

The poster was co - produced by myself, Connaugh Pearce and Callum Wilksinson. It was part of our first year foundation psychology module on the Applied Sport Science course.

Hope you enjoy reading it

Like, share and comment!

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Abstract

This poster presentation attempts to explain how anxiety and arousal affects sports performance.

It looks at models such as reversal theory, catastrophe theory, and the employing of the CSAI-2 test (competitive state anxiety inventory) in giving a better understanding of mood states (paratelic, telic) on performance, and the state of mind risk athletes and non-risk athletes are in. From each of the three studies investigated, male and female participants were used along with amateur and elite standard athletes.

Athletes found that performers in a paratelic state performed much better than those in the telic state when testing their maximum strength. It was also found that there was a negative relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance in athletes, but a positive relationship between self-confidence and performance.

From this analysis the moderator variables for the cognitive anxiety performance relationship were sex and standard of competition. To conclude, from the studies shown, all of the theories confirmed that arousal and anxiety have a major impact on sports performance.

Introduction

The aim of this poster presentation is to explain the relationship between arousal and anxiety on sports performance, and study the positive or negative emotional states on performance.

Arousal can be defined as, a general physiological and psychological activation, varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement (Gould, Weinberg, 2011, p.78). Arousal is viewed as a mixture of psychological and physiological activity in a person, and can be viewed as a positive aspect of stress. The amount of arousal experienced by a person can be a motivator to change, whether this is a performance increase or improved learning of a task. However, too much or too little of arousal can work against the performer, therefore it is crucial to reach a mid-point so there is an optimal level achieved.

Anxiety is viewed as a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension are associated with activation or high levels of arousal in the body (Gould, Weinberg, 2011). There are different forms of anxiety; trait anxiety is where the person experiences worry and a feeling of nervousness in different situations. These high levels of anxiety experienced by the person are due to their personality.

On the other hand, state anxiety is felt in response to a specific situation; it is anxiety related to a specific mood state (Richard, C, 2002). These two levels of anxiety are linked, as a person with high levels of trait anxiety will also experience high levels of state anxiety. The relevance of these areas of study to athletes is extremely important in enhancing their sporting performance, as it aims to illuminate the relation between anxiety and arousal. This relationship, if fully understood, can help athletes to psych up and perform better, rather than psyching out and performing poorly (Gould, Weinberg, 2011).

During this presentation the area being explored will be how arousal can function to the advantage of one person, but on the other hand have a detrimental effect to another. Also, what effects do the fluctuations in anxiety levels, within a person, have on sporting performance?

Article: Arousal seeking in sports participants

Paratelic and Telic dominance was the key assessor in this study. The article seeks out to find what state of mind risk athletes and non-risk athletes are in, Paratelic or telic state of dominance. This would determine in the end which of the two types of athletes are arousal seekers or arousal avoiders also. They used the TDS (Telic dominance scale) to conduct and analyse their results which is a 42 item scale comprised of 3 subscales, Seriousmindness, planning orientation and arousal avoidance.

Three studies were conducted, the first was 102 Australian Males split into 3 groups, 2 groups doing High-Risk Sport and the remaining group doing a Low-Risk sport, the second study consisted of 56 Dutch Males, again split into 3 groups, 2 HR activity and the remaining LR activity. The final study was one where sporting glider pilots and a controlled group of non-sporting members were used, it was trying to find out how arousal differs in age. The hypothesis was based on the theory named ‘Reversal Theory’.

Article: The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes

The study was looking at the reversal theory research to see if high arousal levels contribute to inhibited athletic performance. They used 22 male and 6 female elite level athletes and divided them into paratelic (non-goal directed and processed focused) and telic groups (goal directed) each subjected to scripts of these states. Each group whilst listening to their script will perform a max hand grip test. Guided imagery techniques where sued to change physiological and psychological arousal levels.

Results showed significant increases in strength when in the paratelic state (high positive arousal) compared to the telic state. Heart rate and other indicators of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system were not found to mediate between psychological arousal and performance. They used the following tests, Telic State Measure, Visual Analogue Scale, Tension and Effort Stress Inventory and the Motivational Style Profile Questionnaire.

Article: The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis

During this study the meta analysis investigated two relationships in competitive sport: 1) state cognitive anxiety with performance and 2) state self-confidence with performance. This relationship has been investigated in much detail over a number of years, with researchers attempting to clarify this with several models and theories. The study used both male and female participants and standard of competition they performed at, which gave significant moderating variables for the relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance.

The studies were conducted through the use of the CSAI-2 (competitive state anxiety inventory) which is the most effective questionnaire for researching the relationship between cognitive anxiety, self-confidence and sport performance. Of the 43 studies reporting a relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance, 60% reported a negative relationship and 23% reported a positive relationship. The same 43 studies also reported a relationship between self-confidence and performance, where 76% reported a positive relationship and 10% reported a negative relationship.

Results

The results taken from all three studies in this article were based on findings and scores taken from the TDS, (Telic Dominance Scale). From Study 1 results found that from three of the sports studied, two of them (Surfing & Sailboarding) had a close relationship, maintaining a fairly low score of 12.28 and 12.61, while the other in question (Weight Lifting) had a much higher overall score of Mean 15.68.

From Study 2, subscales were brought into action where they found that planning orientation and serious-minded had no significant difference from the three groups tested. Although from the arousal-avoidance subscale, they found much lower scores from what they believe to be the ‘high-risk’ sports than those of the marathon runners. This in turn strongly influenced the overall score for telic dominance, where the marathon runners scored higher once again than the risk sport performers.

From Study 3, glider pilots and a control group of non-sporting participants were tested. Similar results from study 2 were found in this study where planning orientation and serious-minded subscales had no significant differences in order to draw to a final conclusion. Although once again to back-up Study 2, the glider pilots scored considerably lower on arousal avoidance than the control group.

The study “The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes” based its hypothesis on the Reversal Theory. 28 elite athletes in the experimental group and 28 volunteers in the control group. The athletes showed greatest handgrip strength performance following the paratelic induction. This supports the study’s original hypothesis as well as previous reversal theory research. Two of the three remaining hypotheses based on reversal research were also supported.

Participants experienced greater levels of anxiety during the telic induction and greater levels of excitement during the paratelic induction. Elite level athletes where more telic dominant than controls was as expected and replicates research (Kerr 1987). Strength was superior when in paratelic state but strength never improved during study. High felt arousal and high hedonic tone was critical for best strength performance.

From the results conducted in the Woodman and Hardy (2003) study, it reported a relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance. 26 of the 43 studies reported a negative relationship, 7 reported non-significant results and 10 reported a positive relationship. Of the studies reporting a relationship between self-confidence and performance, 32 reported a positive relationship, 6 reported non-significant results and 4 reported a negative relationship. The cognitive anxiety and self-confidence mean effect sizes were greater for high standard athletes in comparison to low standard athletes. The possible reason for this being that high standard level of performance is typically associated with increased pressure.

Discussion

From the results of the study ‘The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes’ has found it is clear that arousal can either have a positive or negative effect on an athlete’s performance. The study showed that being in two different states of arousal can affect their sporting performance (max strength test on a handgrip). Athletes need to be in a positive frame of mind to promote better performance; this frame of mind has to be a high paratelic state of arousal. Reversal theory is linked heavily between two of three studies mentioned above and is shown to have a great influence on an athlete’s arousal and anxiety levels.

The relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance and also state self-confidence in relation to performance has been investigated in much detail over a number of years. Researchers have attempted to clarify this with several models and theories. The meta-analysis, conducted by Woodman and Hardy, aimed to examine the fundamental predictions of multidimensional anxiety theory, investigating if cognitive anxiety has a negative relationship with performance and that self-confidence has a positive relationship with performance. The study used both male and female participants and standard of competition they performed at, which gave significant moderating variables for the relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance.

This meta-analysis has revealed that both cognitive anxiety and self-confidence are significantly related to competitive sport performance. It has also revealed that the mean effect sizes for cognitive anxiety and self-confidence were significantly higher for men than for women, which was also true for high standard athletes compared to low standard. The possible reason for this being that high standard level of performance is typically associated with increased pressure. It was also found that high standard athletes operate within a more controlled personal environment in comparison to amateur competitors- this is to say that athletes of a high level are more likely to be in ‘control’. From these findings, it is reasonable to expect that the effect of self-confidence and cognitive anxiety upon performance will be clearer with elite athletes.

There is still much research to be conducted in the Woodman and Hardy study, with the most responsive and controlled theoretical models being the processing efficiency theory, which is based on the relationship between performance effectiveness on the one hand and the amount of effort or resources used to attain that level of performance on the other hand (Derekshan, Eysenck, 2009). And also the catastrophe model, which attempts to predict human behaviour and performance rather than attempting to explain how it occurs.

From each of the three studies studied in Arousal Seeking in Risk Sport Participants there were trends in all three where Telic dominance was noticeably linked with what was categorised as the Low-Risk sports evaluated in each study. Also the Paratelic dominance was noticeably linked with the High Risk Sport evaluated such as Parachuting and Motor-Racing. From these results we could come to a conclusion that High risk sports would lean more towards the Paratelic Dominance which in turn would mean that the participants would be more inclined to participate in arousal seeking activity, whereas the Low Risk sport participants would be more inclined to participate in arousal avoiding situations/activity. Performance will change in different activities and situations, especially in high risk and low risk activity due to the arousal levels. As mentioned above arousal can have a positive or negative effect of sporting performance, this all depends on the type of sport or activity being performed. Low arousal may help improve concentration, as it was found in the weight lifting in study 1, also arousal may improve motivation which could be helpful to a parachutist.

To avoid elevated levels of anxiety an optimal arousal or inverted U approach would emphasize reducing anxiety by reducing or controlling arousal. Results in this experiment ‘The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes’ suggest that if athletic task involves more explosive type maximal strength effort a decrease in arousal may inhibit performance. Therefore an approach based on reversal theory principles would be to train athletes to switch or reverse to a paratelic motivational state. This would avoid the need to reduce anxiety by lowering arousal, as lowering arousal may also affect performance negatively.

To summarise the material gathered we can conclude that arousal and anxiety play a crucial part in an athlete’s sporting performance. Judging by the material looking at Telic/Paratelic states and cognitive and state anxiety. The optimal combination of emotions needed for best performance will not necessarily occur at the midpoint of the arousal-state continuum and performance depends on the level of cognitive state anxiety a performer exhibits. (Gould, Weinberg, 2011, p99)

References

Kerr, J. H. (1991). ‘Arousal-seeking in risk sport participants’. Journal of applied sport psychology. 12 (6) 613-616

Perkins, D, Wilson, G.V, Kerr, J. H (2001). ‘The effects of elevated arousal and mood on maximal strength performance in athletes’. Journal of applied sport psychology. 13 (3) 239-259

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. 5^th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies

Weinberg, R.S, Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. 4^th edn. Leeds: Human Kinetics

Woodman, T, Hardy, L. (2003). ‘The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis’. Journal of sports sciences. 21: 443-457

Andrew Richardson, Founder of Strength is Never a Weakness Blog

I have a BSc (Hons) in Applied Sport Science and a Merit in my MSc in Sport and Exercise Science and I passed my PGCE at Teesside University.

Now I will be commencing my PhD into "Investigating Sedentary Lifestyles of the Tees Valley" this October 2019.

I am employed by Teesside University Sport and WellBeing Department as a PT/Fitness Instructor.

My long term goal is to become a Sport Science and/or Sport and Exercise Lecturer. I am also keen to contribute to academia via continued research in a quest for new knowledge.

My most recent publications:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1752928X19300216

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1752928X19301076

My passion is for Sport Science which has led to additional interests incorporating Sports Psychology, Body Dysmorphia, AAS, Doping and Strength and Conditioning.

Within these respective fields, I have a passion for Strength Training, Fitness Testing, Periodisation and Tapering.

I write for numerous websites across the UK and Ireland including my own blog Strength is Never a Weakness.

I had my own business for providing training plans for teams and athletes.

I was one of the Irish National Coaches for Powerlifting, and have attained two 3rd places at the first World University Championships,

in Belarus in July 2016.Feel free to email me or call me as I am always looking for the next challenge.

Contact details below;

Facebook: Andrew Richardson (search for)

Facebook Page: @StrengthisNeveraWeakness

Twitter: @arichie17

Instagram: @arichiepowerlifting

Snapchat: @andypowerlifter

Email: a.s.richardson@tees.ac.uk

Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/andrew-richardson-b0039278

Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Richardson7

Thursday, 28 February 2019

Structural Functionalism and Marxism in Sport

Hi Everyone

I hope you are all well

This next blog post is from one of my sports studies assignments back when I did my undergraduate degree in Applied Sport Science. I co - wrote this work with my good friend Callum Wilkinson.

Enjoy and please comment below what you think about it :) lets get to it!!!

Introduction

Theories, such as structural functionalism and Marxism, also known as conflict theory, endeavour to understand the social and cultural contexts in which sport exists. They provide a way of understanding how sports in society promote social justice, expose and challenge the exploitive use of power, and empower people so that they might resist and transform oppressive social conditions. (Coakley, 2007). The two theories discussed can provide an understanding and different perspective between the relationship of sport and society, when applied to a certain context.

Structural functionalism, based on the work of Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, is a theory that views society as a complex system that has independent parts, such as economy, legal system and health care, all of which need to work together to promote solidarity and stability in society (Macionis, Gerber, 2010). A good analogy by Herbert Spencer presents these independent parts of society as ‘organs’ that have to operate toward the proper functioning of the ‘body’ which provides a stable system (Urry, 2000). One of the key characteristics of structural functionalism is that it views society as constantly striving to be at a state of equilibrium, which suggests there is an inherent drive within human societies to cohere or stick together (Gingrich, 1999). This indicates that if one institution of society changes, then other institutions will strive to adapt and accommodate that change in an effort to maintain this equilibrium.

http://slideplayer.com/slide/778215/3/images/16/Structural-Functionalism.jpg

The Marxism theory, based on the work of Karl Marx, focuses on the ways that sports and society are shaped by economic forces and used by economically powerful people to increase their wealth and influence (Coakley, 2007). Marx viewed society as having two main classes, with the wealthy part of society (Bourgeoisie) owning the means of production, and having the power to manipulate the working class (Proletariat). This inequality would have to be accepted as a natural part of social life. The main goal of conflict theory is similar to that of functionalism; it strives to develop a general theory that explains the organization and operation of all societies (Coakley, 2007)

Strengths and Weaknesses of the two theories

There are a number of strengths with the structural functionalism theory; one of these is that if one area of society was to change or potentially breakdown then another will adjust for this. These social systems are characterized by self-equilibrating mechanisms, which work towards the maintenance of social stability (Malcolm 2008). As a result of this societies can be seen to be highly interconnected and be viewed on as having a functional unity. From a functionalist viewpoint, sport is seen to help maintain individual and social balance, the opportunity for individual self-expression, or for national and cultural preference. Sport is seen as an important social institution, which reflects the many complex relationships and interactions in wider society (Bell, 2009). However, from a Marxist point of view, sport would be used as a political tool, whereby the athletes would not have been political activists, but the state they represented would have been (Bell, 2009). These governments used their athletes to propel their ideologies and to make political statements. A prime example of this is the East German program during the 1980’s of systematically doping their athletes. This was in the pursuit of gaining top medal table positions within international competition, and to be noticed as a new and powerful nation.

Although this is clearly not an ethical way to go about winning, it has proven to be an effective tool in propelling countries political motives to the world. It is always a small section of society whom holds the power and can be seen when we review how sport was used by various governments to make political statements.

Functionalism views sport in a much more optimistic light. It is based around self-equilibrating mechanisms which help to bring individuals, from varying backgrounds, together to work towards a common goal and provide opportunities to develop social cohesion (Hak, 2007). For example, an aspiring NFL (National football league) player from a poor background can feel he can be part of a team as he will share a common goal amongst other players within the sport. He does not need to feel ‘out of place’ or any different from other players on the team. As a result of this it will teach necessary qualities for modern day society, such as, teamwork, sportsmanship, honesty and integrity which are essential for the maintenance of social order. This is why competitive sports prefer the functionalist viewpoint as it emphasizes the functions of sports, and supports the conclusions that sports are a source of inspiration for individuals and societies (Coakley, 2007). From this theory, it can be argued that an individual from a low economic background can be provided with the opportunity to rise to the top of social hierarchy.

One of the main weaknesses of the functionalism theory is that sport can mirror society in profound ways, and that it not necessarily has a positive effect and experience for all. This can be identified through racism, sexism and homophobia, as well as greed, exploitation and alienation, which are all persistent problems within sport (Bell 2009). It assumes that integration and harmony are common through society and that it is a normal state of affairs, whilst also assuming that the needs of different groups within society are the same as the needs of society itself (Malcolm 2008). It is evident that this is not the case as sport organisations, for example, continue to be segregated along sexual/gender lines. Another point of weaknesses to this theory is that it does not acknowledge that sports are social constructions. It over states the positive consequences of sports and it ignores that sport serves the needs of some people more than others (Coakley, 2007).

These examples are evident throughout many sports, especially ones which require physical power, such as the NFL. It does not help us to understand how women in society are disadvantaged when sports are organized in ways that legitimize the use of physical strength (Coakley, 2007). Race is also a major factor within the NFL. There is a racial divide in the south which is apparent in the pre-game walks of the players to the stadium. It is clear to see that the fans are predominantly white, while the players are often black. While this is not a negative aspect to the sport, as the players are usually treated as ‘gods’ by the fans, it clearly shows a divide in race, where the athletes are viewed on as objects with one clear goal of winning the game for their team. In contrast to this, it has also been shown that college football, and other team sports, can help to erase these divides of the rich and poor, whites and blacks. They are all striving for one goal which creates a community amongst them.

The NFL, and college football, reflects the way in which society exists today and reinforces the Marxism viewpoint. This is evident as it is all about winning, sometimes at any cost. It is about conquest of opponent’s territory and opponents themselves, about a strict division of labor and the ‘survival of the fittest’. Thus the game itself embodies some important elements of the dominant ideology of our society (Selbo, 2008). Marx’s theory is further exemplified, as you can interpret that the athletes are treated more like workers, instead of humans, as they are largely controlled and manipulated by their coach. For example, the coach will tell them when to eat, when to sleep and have a very controlling influence over there training. This results in the individual losing their identity, which means player become slaves that can be bought and sold to the highest bidder.

Although much more positive, structural functionalism stresses consensus over conflict; it has a harmonistic view which unfortunately is unrealistic (Malcolm, 2008). Within professional NFL, or any team sport, it is clear that not everyone within the structure will hold the same values, and will not all work for the same common goal. For example, there will be people within a team competing for wealth, power and resources, which will inevitably result in creating disagreement and conflict. Sport, of its very nature, is divisive and differentiating rather than integrative and unifying in relation to its own and the wider community (Tomlinson 2007). It is evident that sport thrives on dividing winners from losers and elite performers from amateurs. Furthermore, sport creates divisions and conflicts within communities. Football is a prime example of this, whereby certain communities will support one team, whilst another community will be fierce rivals to this team. This divide is so intense that it creates a passion that fans have for their teams which can go as far as dividing families (Selbo, 2008). This rivalry creates a ‘us’ and ‘them’ mentality, which results in young fans growing up hating the other side but not knowing why as they are being led on by the older generation. Even though the sport of NFL can bring people together under certain conditions, it has unfortunately been shown that sport has come to pit race against race, men against women, city against city, class against class and coach against player. (Deford, 1998).

The conflict theory will support this notion that there is a clear divide between winners and losers, race and gender, but also a clear divide in social structure. This can be seen throughout stadiums as they are very much structured along the lines of economic class and social status (Selbo, 2008). For example, the lower level seats will obviously be much more expensive than those in the upper deck, and only accessible to those who are considered the upper class. There is also a division in class by the simple fact that some people can afford tickets to a football game, but many cannot.

The sport of NFL, or sports in general, can be seen as a ‘Religion’ to some individuals. According to Marx, religion was an ‘opiate to the masses’ (Selbo, 2008). Marx is describing here that the ideology of a culture is not neutral in regard to the various constituencies in that society (Selbo, 2008). This Ideology tends to support or justify the unequal distribution of goods and wealth, it therefore tends to justify the superior position of the ‘haves’ over the ‘have not’s (Selbo, 2008). In relation to the NFL, it is the individuals in charge of the distribution of the sport that can exploit the spectators, and also the players, in order to generate more money for themselves and sponsors.

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Conclusion

These theories provide a framework that can be used when making decisions within life, and thinking about sports in society. They both focus on societal needs and how sports are related to the satisfaction of those needs. The Functionalist theory is a very optimistic one, which only offers positive explanations for consequences associated with sports and sport involvement. It is therefore based around the assumption that there are no conflicts of interest between groups within society (Coakley, 2007). This theory is favourable to people with power, as it is based on the assumption that society is organized for the equal benefit of all people. This discourages any change, as the system operates effectively, and does not jeopardize the wealthy part of society’s privilege and influence. The Marxism theory, which is at the other end of the spectrum, offers up a much more pessimistic, but realistic view of sport and society. It clearly identifies economic exploitation in sports and identifies factors related to class relations. However, this theory overemphasizes social class and economic factors in society and does not recognise how sport can be used as a tool of resistance against oppression (Coakley, 2007).

Functionalism is useful for understanding consensus while conflict theory is appropriate for understanding conflict and coercion. Both functionalism and conflict theory share the weakness of being able to explain only portions of social life (Ritzer & Goodman, 2003). Despite this, and other negative aspects, social theories are beneficial when exploring controversies and issues within sport, they provide a way of better understanding the social world and become more informed in modern day issues within society.