Hi Everyone
I hope you are all well
This next blog post is from one of my nutritional assignments back when I did my undergraduate degree in Applied Sport Science.
I have just converted it to blog format.
(The topic of this blog post is outlined below;)
Enjoy and please comment below what you think about it :) lets get to it!!!
“An investigation to
establish the nutritional status of a former Elite Time Trial cyclist. This includes the
development, research, analysis, implementation & evaluation of dietary
strategies aimed at optimising client’s needs”
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| Image Credit: https://catenacycling.com/en/cyclopedia/events/championships-and-olympic-games/olympic-games-2012-london/2012-olympics-london-individual-time-trial |
Literature
Review
My client is a former elite level Time
Trial (TT) cyclist whose goal is now to add more lean
muscle mass and have more strength. This report is
assessing the client’s current diet and activity levels, the analysis of
which will determine specifically what dietary elements are deficient, or in excess, and how the client should
revise his eating habits. This will result in the creation of a bespoke
intervention programme so that the client’s nutritional plan meets his personal
aims. After
the nutritional plan (intervention) has been implemented, review testing will
take place to determine if objectives have been achieved.
Having a well-structured diet is essential for the
average individual or the elite level athlete to achieve their personal goal,
either improving their health or improving their sporting performance (Gollwitzer,
1999). Many athletes eat well, but do not eat for their performance, which
ultimately results in underperforming (Maughan,
2007). Nutrition is just one factor of performance and goes hand in hand with
training, age, gender, experience, psychology and biomechanics. However, it is
nutrition that makes the difference in an athlete coming 1st or 2nd
due to the immense effect that one’s diet can have on their performance. (Maughan, 2007).
This report will help the client understand what is necessary for him to consume, and
when, in order to improve his own performance. It is imperative to understand
the role and functionality of every aspect of nutrition so that it can be
explained to our client, and structured accordingly to his requirements.
The food we eat is divided into macronutrients and
micronutrients (Saris et al 1989). Large nutrients are called macronutrients
and include carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Effective regulation of all
metabolic processes requires the right amount of vitamins, minerals and water -
these are the micronutrients (McArdle, Katch and Katch, 2012, pp. 49) needed to
help maintain homeostasis (Woods et al 1998). Ingesting food is one thing, but eating
them at the correct time is another. Nutrient timing refers to the practice of
consuming a specific nutrient in a given time period within proximity to
training or performance to achieve a desired result (Campbell, NSCA – National
Strength & Conditioning Association, 2011, p.7). An example being eating
carbohydrates and proteins after training for growth and repair of muscles
whilst replacing depleted glycogen.
Nutrients have very different functions. Depending
on the individual’s personal goals, the required
amount of these nutrients will change. A simple example is that the carbohydrate
and protein intake of an endurance athlete will be different to a weightlifter
(Andreoli et al 2001). Since this case study involves an athlete, his general
recommended guidelines are 60% carbohydrate, 20-25% fat and 15-20% protein (Jeukendrup,
& Gleeson, 2010) per day.
Needs
Analysis of a Time Trial (TT) Cyclist
Time Trial (TT) cycling requires athletes to place a
huge demand upon the aerobic system, similar to rowing and running, as it
requires a lot of training to cause physiological adaptions such as increased
stroke volume, improved Respiratory Exchange Rate (RER) and enhanced economy of
using oxygen over long periods of time (Pelliccia et al 1991, Kokkinos et al
1995, Rodeheffer et al 1984). TT athletes can cycle between 10-100 miles
(Cyclingtimetrials 2014), however shorter distances can happen and for fixed TT, it is 12-24 hours. This large distance and time
places huge emphasis on athletes’ aerobic capacity and aerobic endurance
(Shareky & Gaskill 2006; Jones & Carter 2000).
Cyclists need to be carrying little bodyweight,
which needs to be nearly all muscle mass, in order to maximise Time Trial
performance. However, too big a drop in bodyweight can decrease performance
(Fogelholm, 1994). The arms should not carry much weight as they are only
needed for stabilising the rider and steering. Looking at cycling, the sport
requires large amounts of muscular endurance especially in the legs and core - the
legs to do the pedalling and the core to stabilise the rider (Abt et al 2007;
Hibbs et al 2008). With the above mentioned and the client’s goal to add more
muscle mass, the Nutritional Plan must be specific, enjoyable and realistic to
the athlete to improve his performance.
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| Image Credit: https://roadcyclinguk.com/how-to/three-training-sessions-to-improve-your-functional-threshold-power-ftp.html#28fdo0RThybx1mGu.97 |
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate is the body’s primary energy source (Lemon
and Nagle 1981; Van Loon et al 1999) and is mainly used for high intensity
exercise (Campbell, NSCA, 2011, p.4). The higher the intensity of exercise, the less
lipids are used as a fuel source (Mittendorfer & Klein 2003). It is made up
of simple (sugars) and complex carbohydrates (also
known as starch and fibre) such as rice and pasta (Engelsen et al 1996; McArdle
et al 2012). This is broken down into 4 categories - monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides refer to simple
carbohydrates and polysaccharides relate to complex carbohydrates. The
important sugars within the monosaccharide bracket include glucose, galactose
and maltose.
Glucose can be sourced from fruits, galactose is
obtained in dairy products and maltose from cereals. Glucose is available
through the digestion of carbohydrate and is a vital fuel source. When
monosaccharides have been absorbed via the small intestine, it can be used
either directly by the cells for energy, converted to fat for later use, or
stored as glycogen in the body. Carbohydrates are broken down and stored as
glycogen in both skeletal muscles and in the liver. The glycogen stored in the
muscles is used a fuel for activity. Liver glycogen’s role is to maintain blood
glucose concentration for the body. This includes the
Central Nervous System (CNS) which depends heavily on glucose (Wolinsky &
Driskell 2008). For every gram of
carbohydrate consumed in the body it supplies 16 KJ (3.75 Kcal) of
energy (McArdle et al, 2009).
The guidelines for carbohydrate intake for an
average active male is 5-7 g/kg/day. This will cover the daily recovery/fuel
needs for an athlete with a moderate exercise programme. However, for an elite
level cyclist/endurance athlete, daily recovery/fuel needs (to cover 1-3h of
moderate to high intensity exercise) requires 7-10g/kg BM/day (Costill, Sherman & Fink 1981; Burke, Collier &
Beasley, 1995). Those athletes undertaking an extreme exercise programme
(i.e. > 4-5h of moderate to high intensity exercise such as Tour de France)
require 10-12+ g/kg BM/day (Saris, Erpt-Baart & Brouns, 1989; Brouns, Saris
& Stroecken, 1989).
Complex carbohydrates help to reduce the Low Density
Lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol size without altering the blood triglycerol or High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)
concentrations. (Grundy, 1986). The type of carbohydrate you ingest can take
different lengths of time to become available - this refers to the Glycaemic
Index (GI). GI represents the food’s ability to raise blood glucose (Wolever
& Jenkins 1986). High GI foods include rice and low GI foods include pasta
(McArdle et al 2009). Closely linked to carbohydrate is fibre. Fibre is classed
as a non-starch polysaccharide (Serpell et al 2000). The research surrounding fibre
looks at using it for reducing heart and peripheral artery disease, obesity and
diabetes (Marlett, McBurney and Slavin, 2002).
Athletes in endurance sports often need to take
carbohydrate drinks to maintain energy levels during an event (Earnest et al 2004)
such as the Tour De France. They would also incorporate a glycogen loading
phase in their diet leading up to an event to increase their body stores of
glycogen - this is usually in a super compensation phase of carb loading (Hawley,
et al 1997). In periods of intense training, carbohydrates should be increased
to 70% from the 60% athlete guidelines as mentioned earlier. This is for a 70kg
male. The carbohydrates in this case would be made up of fibre rich nutrients
such as grains, fruits and vegetables (McArdle et al 2012).
The client will have been used to taking on high
levels of carbohydrate in his competition days due to the sporting demands (Earnest et al 2004). Cycling events cause fatigue
due to carbohydrate depletion so 30-60 grams
of high GI carbohydrates should be ingested per hour when beginning early in
the exercise. If carbohydrates cannot be ingested throughout larger amounts
(100 grams) of concentrated (20-75%) carbohydrate, they should be ingested
at least 30 minutes prior to fatigue - this is for a 70kg male athlete (Melby
et al, 2002). However, for muscle gain, he will need an adequate amount of
carbohydrate to help fuel his training. Lean muscle mass will require a pre-planned
training strategy looking at increasing the protein
intake and reducing the carbohydrate so his body fat percentage remains low (Donges,
Duffield & Drinkwater, 2010). Finding the right balance in carbohydrate
is key, as not enough won’t replace the muscle glycogen lost in training thus
affecting the next session, and too much carbohydrate will not be stored as
glycogen but will be converted into fat (McArdle et al 2012).
Protein
Protein is used for the repair and regeneration of
muscle fibre tissues (Kerksick, 2006.). It is
heavily used to increase and maintain lean body mass (Campbell, NSCA – National
Strength & Conditioning Association, 2011, p.5). Protein can be obtained
from nuts, dairy foods, fish, poultry, beef, pork and lamb.
It can be used in some cases as an energy source, however it is not as
effective as carbohydrate (Krieger, Sitren, Daniels & Langkamp-Henken, 2006).
Proteins are made up of non-essential and essential amino acids, both of which
have different roles in the body.
Studies such as Borshem et al (2001) proved that
ingestion of protein post exercise encourages protein synthesis and speeds up recovery. There are essential amino acids
that the body needs from our diet to carry out
specific functions (Børsheim et al 2002) such as leucine, which repairs
damaged muscle fibres. Others within the
non-essential amino acids, such as glutamine, is used
for gut function, the immune system, and other essential processes in the body,
especially in times of stress (Souba et al 1990). Amino acids are
crucial in managing metabolism and organ function, as proteins act as carriers
in the blood for many nutrients in the transport system (Grundy 1986).
Guidelines for protein intake is varied. The UK Daily Recommended Value (DRV) suggests
0.75/kg per day is safe but, with training being part of a competitive athlete’s
lifestyle, this number should be 1.2g to 1.8g as it is needed for adaptions
to exercise to occur (Campbell et al 2007). The
amount of protein required will depend on the sport - weightlifters, throwers
and bodybuilders will need more protein than endurance athletes. By
eating more protein, the subject will feel fuller for longer (Alpers, 2006) which
will stop unnecessary snacking/binge eating. However, the body can only take up
so much protein per g/kg/per bodyweight. Once this has been reached the body can’t
absorb any more protein as saturation has been reached. Anymore protein
ingested above the uptake level will not be taken in (Van Erp-Baart et al 1989).
If any more is consumed than it can absorb, then it will be passed out of the
system. Amino acids are not a direct contributor to energy production, however
studies have shown that it is linked with the intensity of exercise (Brooks
1987; Lemon & Nagel 1981; Wagenmakers 1998).
In terms
of protein timing, Rasmussen et al (2000) looked at
how amino acid ingestion alters the anabolic response to resistance exercise. Results
showed that the consumption of an essential amino-acid carbohydrate solution
immediately before resistance exercise, has a greater anabolic effect than when
the solution is consumed after exercise. This is primarily due to an increase
in muscle protein synthesis as a result of increased delivery of amino acids to
the muscles.
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| Image Credit: https://runnersconnect.net/coach-corner/carb-cycling-for-runners-the-alternative-to-low-carb-diets/ |
Fats
Dietary fat or lipids are an essential nutrient to
bodily function, health and sporting performance. McArdle (2012) stated that
fats should make up 15% of our total calorie intake and one third of this
should be made up of essential fatty acids. Lipids/fats are very important in
the body for many reasons. These include insulation, protecting the organs and
absorption of vitamins such as A, D, E and K (Zulauf, 2012). Fats can be in many
forms. They are categorised into monounsaturated, saturated or unsaturated
fatty acids. Saturated (bad fats) are found mainly in meats and dairy products,
including commercially prepared foods such as cookies and readymade meals.
Daily intake of this kind of fat should not exceed 10% of total calories (Turner
et al 2013).
The better fats are the essential fatty acids. These include the omega 3 fats, which
can be found in fish, lean meats, green vegetables and
sunflower seeds. Essential fatty acids play a key role in maintaining our
immune system, aiding the production of hormones and disease prevention. These
fats are excellent at inducing an anti-inflammatory response and for healthy
joints (Talukdar et al 2010; Wall, Ross, Fitzgerald & Stanton
2010). Omega 3’s have also been found to delay and reduce the effect of Delayed
Onset of Muscle Soreness (DOMS) in a study
done by Tartibian (2009).
Lipids can also be used as an energy source for low
intensity exercise (Campbell, NSCA, 2011, p.4) and
they are the secondary energy source to
carbohydrates (Lemon and Nagle 1981; Van Loon et al 1999). However, lipids’
molecular formula produces twice as much energy per gram when compared to
carbohydrate (McArdle et al 2009). If high intensity exercise is long in
duration, then fat metabolism is increased and carbohydrate metabolism is
decreased (Jeukendrup, 2003). Energy sources stated use Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) which converts the macronutrient energy, (chemical energy), into mechanical
energy (ATP) for movements (McArdle, Katch & Katch 2008).
Fluids
Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are
very important, however, being hydrated is also essential to performance. Water
(H20) makes up the majority of our bodies’ weight and any wonder being dehydrated has an effect on our performance and our
health (Barr, 1999). Hydration is key for any sporting performance, and it isn’t just limited to water but to replenishing lost salts,
sugar and electrolytes (Casa et al 2000). When athletes are dehydrated, that is
when performance declines rapidly and injury can occur (Walsh et al 1994). Dehydration
can effect aerobic and strength performance to such an extent that an athlete’s
performance suffers tremendously (Bigard et al 2001 & Schoffstall et
al 2001).
Athletes (especially endurance athletes)
need to take on board carbohydrate so they can complete the event. This is
ingested via a carbohydrate drink (Rodriguez et al 2009). Studies
have compared water only drinks and electrolyte drinks in terms of re-hydrating
athletes/hydrating athletes both pre and post events. The results showed those
drinks without any salts/sugars proved to be ineffective in hydrating the
athlete (Rodriguez et al 2009).
Vitamins
and Minerals
Vitamins and minerals are within the micronutrient
group and they play a vital role in many important bodily functions. These include converting food into energy (Haque, 1999), antioxidant
transportation (Padayatty et al 2003) and calcium transport (Martin &
Deluca 1969). Vitamins are divided into fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat
soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K. The water soluble vitamins include
C, B and Folic Acid. Minerals are used for building strong bones, teeth and controlling
body fluids inside and outside cells and include sodium and potassium.
Having one’s diet reviewed and planned isn’t
enough for an improved performance. Athletes are constantly trying to improve
their performance and will use ergogenic aids. Ergogenic aids are a work
enhancing substance or device believed to increase performance (Campbell, NSCA,
2011, p.7). Ergogenic aids can be divided into two categories: macronutrient
intake manipulations and ingestion of dietary supplementations (McNaughton,
1986). Examples include carb-loading (macro nutrient manipulation) and creatine
loading (supplementation).
Referring back to the client’s goal of
increased lean muscle mass, studies have shown that doing hypertrophy/strength
training, combined with supplementing amino acids pre, during and post exercise,
can influence protein synthesis pathways
(Willoughby, Stout, and Wilborn 2007; Esmarck et al. 2001; Tipton and Ferrando
2008; Tipton et al 2001).
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| Image Credit: https://www.welovecycling.com/wide/2017/09/06/cyclists-hydration-improve-performance/ |
Practical
Constraints
From a practical perspective, it is worth noting the client may find it difficult to complete
this intervention due to time and finances. He is a full time final year
student and as such, is undoubtedly under pressure with his academic studies. He may not have the time to source and prepare meals
and also adhere to a strict dietary regime. Another potential constraint is
that the client may not have been completely honest when giving his 7-Day
Report back. If this is the case, then
the intervention will not truly reflect what the client actually needs. The
client may not adhere to all of the planned meals and may not admit to
unplanned deviation from the intervention/nutritional plan. Another practical restriction that needs
addressed is to confirm if the client has any ethical concerns about the
provided diet sheets – we must consider people’s religious beliefs and any
nutritional inhibitions.
The range of methodologies employed to
assess his nutritional status and fitness, are as follows:
Methodologies
Design
of Protocol
With
the use of the self-reporting food diaries,
the subject was asked to record one weeks’ worth of meal plans using his own
food intake. Upon dietary analysis, a second a
nutritional plan was delivered to the subject to follow and complete for 3-4
weeks before the next testing session.
Apparatus
Numerous
tests were conducted to gain greater insight into the
subject’s anthropometric and blood data. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated
however, it must be noted that BMI is not applicable to athletes as it doesn’t
take into account mass as either fat or muscle - it just assumes it all as fat (Burkhauser & Cawley, 2008). The Resting
Metabolic Rate (RMR) is very high indicting that even when at rest, the subject
needs to have a high calorific intake to function. However, through questioning,
the subject had to run for a bus to attend to the first testing session.
This
activity before the test caused a spike in his metabolism. Height and weight
was measured using the stadiometer and weighing scales (both Seca brand). Body
fat percentage was calculated via the Harpenden Skin fold Calipers. These measure
the 4 anatomical sites bicep, tricep, subscapularis and iliac crest. Blood
glucose and haemoglobin were analysed using the Glucose 201+ machine and the HB
201+ machine. Blood iron was determined via the haematocrit centrifuge. HDL,
LDL and total cholesterol were measured via the Refltron Blood Analyser. Chest,
waist and hip measurements were recorded using a standard tape measure and the hip:waist
ratio calculated by dividing waist/hip circumference (for a more comprehensive
review on the equipment see the Appendices Equipment Tables).
Procedures
Prior
to any testing and alteration of the subject’s diet, he was provided with a
participant information sheet thoroughly explaining the purpose of the study and
the procedures it would entail. Informed
consent was obtained and a full medical questionnaire was completed prior to participating
in any testing or dietary intervention. The subject was also made aware that
they had the right to withdraw from the investigation at any given time and
that all experimental procedures and protocols for this study were approved by
University of Teesside SSSL Ethics Committee. Confidentiality
will be ensured as no information will be shared onto a third party.
Post
collection of initial anthropometric data, a seven day food diary was completed
recording all food and drink consumed along with activity levels. This
information was inputted into the Nutritics software for an in-depth analysis of
current macro/micronutrient intake in relation to the recommended nutritional
intake (RNI) and the client’s personalised goals.
The
RNIs are set generously based on the client’s feedback from the 7 day report.
To gain a more accurate description of calorific and nutritional recommendations,
manual recordings were completed using the Basal metabolic rate (shown in
appendices). A client meeting was organised on 05/01/2016 to evaluate current
diet and lifestyle habits, and to explain what format the intervention would comprise
of (see Appendix 1.0). The new intervention will meet the client’s goals as it will
highlight any deficiencies or excesses within
their diet.
Energy
expenditure was calculated using the basal metabolic rate (BMR) incorporating method
3 (Appendix 1.5). The BMR is then multiplied by 2.0 to calculate energy
expenditure as a result of the client’s training (for calculations refer to Appendix
1.5)
The main three macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats and protein) were
calculated (Appendices 1,2,3) based on BMR and subject’s training days. These
values were then compared to both the subject’s average daily energy intake as
derived from the Nutritics and the estimated requirements as indicated by the
software. Following the evaluation of the subject’s present nutritional strategies,
and then comparing them with the normative values (recommended guidelines), an intervention
was discussed (Appendix 1.0). The educational strategy highlighted any
deficiencies within the diet. The nutritional plan
was put in place not only to meet the client’s goals, but also to
improve the client’s health.
Analysis:
The analysis of the client’s data was calculated by the www.nutritics.com
software. The initial results of his diet, blood work, and
anthropometric measurements are shown below.
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| Image Credit: https://jeffstutoring.ca/guidelines-for-writing-formal-lab-reports/ |
Results
Graphs
and tables outlined in the section below refer to the following;
1. Pre and Post Intervention
Test Results with Recommended Nutritional Intakes (RNIs).
2. Intervention for
Client - Pre and Post Diet Analysis utilising Nutritics.
3. Results of Pre
and Post Intervention Testing Measures.
Section
1: Pre and Post Intervention Test Results with RNI
Graphs
1.0 - 1.7 show comparisons between Pre Intervention (7 Day Dietary Analysis)
and Post Intervention, and the Recommended Nutrient Intake
(RNI);
Figure 1.0 Carbohydrate Intake
Black bars denote
Post Intervention carbohydrate intake, average for this is represented by the
red dotted line (252g). Pre Intervention carbohydrate intake is signified by
grey bars, average is represented by the grey dotted line (204g). Average
weekly Recommended Nutritional Intake (RNI) should be between 430-717g
(represented by black lines).
Figure 1.1 Sugar Intake
Black bars denote
Post Intervention sugar intake, average for this is represented by the red
dotted line (103g). Pre Intervention sugar intake is represented by grey bars,
average is signified by the grey dotted line (102g). Recommended Nutritional
Intake (RNI) per day should be below 71g (represented by black line).
Figure 1.2 Non Starch Polysaccharide
(NSP) Intake
Black bars denote
Post Intervention NSP intake, average for this is represented by the red dotted
line (28g). Pre intervention NSP intake is signified by grey bars, average is
represented by the grey dotted line (14g). Recommended Nutritional Intake (RNI)
per day should be between 18-24g (represented by black line).
Figure 1.3
Monounsaturated Fat
Black bars denote
Post Intervention monounsaturated fat intake, average for this is represented
by the red dotted line (45g). Pre intervention monounsaturated intake is
signified by grey bars, average is represented by the grey dotted line (32g).
Recommended Nutritional Intake (RNI) per day should be below 71g (represented
by black line).
Figure 1.4
Vitamin D
Black bars denote
Post Intervention Vitamin D intake, average for this is represented by the red
dotted line (8ug). Pre intervention Vitamin D intake is signified by grey bars,
average is represented by the grey dotted line (2ug). Recommended Nutritional
Intake (RNI) per day should be between 10-20ug (represented by black lines).
Figure 1.5 Folic Acid (B9)
Black bars denote
Post Intervention folic acid intake, average for this is represented by the red
dotted line (331ug). Pre intervention folic acid intake is signified by grey
bars, average is represented by the grey dotted line (193ug). Recommended
Nutritional Intake (RNI) per day should be between 300-600ug (represented by
black line)
Figure 1.6 Sodium
Black bars denote
Post Intervention sodium intake, average for this is represented by the red
dotted line (2043mg). Pre intervention sodium intake is signified by grey bars,
average is represented by the grey dotted line (2385mg). Recommended
Nutritional Intake (RNI) per day should be below 1600mg (represented by black
line)
Figure 1.7 Niacin (B3)
Black bars denote
Post Intervention niacin intake, average for this is represented by the red
dotted line (70mg). Pre intervention niacin intake is signified by grey bars,
average is represented by the grey dotted line (42mg). Recommended Nutritional
Intake (RNI) per day should be below 16.5mg (represented by black line).
Section
2. Intervention for Client: Pre and Post Nutritics Analysis
Nutritics Pre-Intervention Output
Macronutrient
Pre - Intervention Analysis
