Afternoon Everyone!
I hope you all well :)
This post is looking at Choking and Yips in Golf. It was an essay I had written back during my undergraduate degree.
These are my own words, feel free to reply below in the comments section.
Looking forward to hearing your replies
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| Image Credit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wE_zbnnJlsk |
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1.0
Abstract
The literature reviewed is centred on “yips, choking,
arousal, stress and anxiety” in sport. The sport of focus is golf as it is subjected to all these factors from
grass roots level to the professionals on the PGA Tour. Three journals
will be analysed within this review comparing their methodology, defining
topics, and identifying strengths and limitations between testing procedures
and participants. The findings will be reviewed in order to hypothesise where
future research needs to direct itself. The literature reviewed was analysed
from online databases such as Scopus, Sport Discus and Sage journals. The journals are by the following authors;
Klampfl, Lobinger & Raab (2013), Woodman, Akehurst & Beattie (2010)
and Stinear, Coxon, Fleming, Lim, Prapavessis & Byblow (2006). Reviewing
these papers, there is no standardized method to identifying and/or quantifying
yips affected golfers. More studies can lead to a classification for golfers with
yips which could provide a useful framework for the appropriate management of
yips symptoms.
1.1 Background on Yips
and Choking
Klampfl,
Lobinger & Raab (2013), gave
a detailed account on the background of what Yips and Choking is. Yips occur
mostly during the putting component of golf, as it consists of involuntary
movements appearing shortly before hitting the ball that results in a loss
of control which leads to missing the putt (McDaniel, Cummings & Shain
1989; Smith et al 2000; Steiner et al 2006). The yips is well known in golfing
circles and statistics shows it affects 28-48% of all participants (McDaniel et
al 1989; Smith et al 2000). The golfers who stated they were affected by yips identified
that the symptoms (similar to choking) occurred at pressure situations (McDaniel
et al 1989, Philippen, Klampfl & Lobinger, 2012). Yips is associated with choking
under pressure defined as “the process whereby
the individual perceives their resources are insufficient to meet the demands
of the situation and concludes with a significant drop in performance – a
choke” (Hill, Hantin, Fleming and Matthews 2009). Performance anxiety is
theorised that it plays a huge role in setting off the yips (McDainel et al
1989; Smith et al 2000). Yips can be described as a very bad form of choking
(Masters 1992) as it has similar characteristics to it (Bawden and Maynard
2001). It can be argued that beginner golfers with little to no experience,
combined with a high handicap, do suffer from the yips (Philippen, Klampfl
& Lobinger 2012).
Gucciardi
& Longbottom (2010) stated that, yips isn’t acute but is chronic, and
happens over a period of time. This can be exemplified by Rory McIlroy, the
Northern Irish golfer, who was leading the US Masters in 2011, and then had a
catastrophic failure on the last day when he dropped nearly ten shots due to
putting errors (the yips) and choking on the tee when playing high pressure
shots. Many different measurement methods have been used to investigate the
yips including recording muscle activity using electromyography (EMG), grip force,
heart rate, putting performance and kinematic parameters. It has been shown
that yips affected golfers exhibit an increased muscle activity (Smith et al
2000, Steiner et al 2006) within the lower forearm muscles (Alder et al 2005,
2011).
While
this is significant, Smith (2000) found yips affected golfers had decreased
performance accuracy which can be attributed to an increase in anxiety and
elevated arousal levels. Applying the inverted U-Hypothesis; as arousal
increases, so too does performance, were it comes to a point too much arousal
leads to a decrease in performance (Hardy & Fazey 1988). This decrease in
performance can be described as choking or better explained as the Catastrophe
model (Hardy 1990). However, in Steiner’s 2000 paper, there was no recorded
difference in performance between affected and non-affected yip groups on their
accuracy.
2.0 Literature
Review
In this section, the report will look at what theories underpin
choking and yips, and the methodology of the papers analysed.
2.1 Theories
Models which explain the mechanisms of choking
under pressure include Distraction Theories (Eysenck & Calvois 1992) &
Self Focus Theories. Distraction looks at athletes focusing on anything but the
task at hand e.g. a runner would focus on their breathing instead of their
position in the race. Self focus theories assumes that performance anxiety
causes the athlete to shift the focus of attention inward or to consciously
monitor the skill, which detrimentally affects the well learned, automated
action (Baumeister 1984).
The Reinvestment Theory is
defined as the manipulation of conscious explicit, rule based knowledge, by
working memory to control the mechanisms of one’s movements using motor output
(Masters 1992). “To yip or not to yip, that is the question” (Rotherham,
Maynard, Thomas & Bawden 2007), found through a questionnaire, that yips
affected athletes had an increased tendency both to consistently control
(reinvest in) their movements and to be perfectionists. The occurrence of
choking under pressure also depended on two appraisals, according to the class
stress model (Lazarus 1974).
Yips can also be
described as a physical issue. Dystonia (or better known as Focal Dystonia) describes
a neuromuscular movement disorder whose symptoms include involving muscular
contractions resulting in twisting & repetitive movement or abnormal postures
occurring exclusively in one body part and during the performance of a task
(Pont-Sunyer, Martí, & Tolosa 2010). Dystonia has also been reported in table
tennis (Le Floch et al 2010) and tennis (Mayer, Topka, Boose, Horstmann &
Dickhuth 1999). Mechanisms of dystonia are still unclear but are assumed to
involve abnormalities within the basal ganglia, inhibiting & processing
dysfunction of the sensorimotor system & abnormal plasticity (Rosenkaranz
et al 2008).
2.2
Yips in Golf
The
purpose of the first paper, “The Yips in Golf: Multimodal Evidence for Two
Subtypes”, was to determine whether a model of the two subtypes of yips is
supported by evidence from a range of physiological, behavioural and
psychological measures. There were 24 volunteers divided into affected and non-affected
yip groups. Statistical tests used included a one way analyses of variance to
test for the differences between the golfing groups and the independent
two-tailed t-tests were used also. The subjects were measured physically using
an EMG (electromyography) to record muscle activity, performance measure
(putting ability) and psychologically (state anxiety) using the CSAI-2
(Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2) scale.
They were tested in
situations to create high/low pressure/monetary incentive to either facilitate
or inhibit the subjects’ putting performance using a video camera to record
them (higher pressure) and/or a confederate to use negative reinforcement when
they missed a putt. Limitations of this paper included putting accuracy was 50%
for all three groups, implying the task may have been quite difficult. The
control group of golfers tended to be younger and of a lower handicap than the
two other yips groups. This is to be expected as yips takes a number of years
to develop to compromise a performance and is consistent with previous research
(McDaniel et al 1989).
The purpose of the study
was achieved as the results supported the classification of yips into Type 1
and Type 2. The four hypothesis for this study concluded that under low
pressure situations, there still is a large amount of muscle activity in the
Type 1 golfers when compared to the control group. Type 2 golfers’ performance
was significantly better in the absence of monetary reward (high pressure). It was confirmed that Type 2 golfers would
have higher state anxiety but this was a small difference and did not affect
low and high pressure situations.
 |
| https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-science-of-choking-under-pressure-133896043/ |
2.3 Self
Confidence and Performance
The objective of the
second paper, “Self-confidence and performance: A little self-doubt helps”, was
to test the theory that a decrease in confidence on a well learned task will
increase effort and performance. It used a two (group: control, experimental) x
two (trial: practice, competition) mixed-model with repeated measures on second
factor. The study used expert skippers.
Their confidence was reduced via a combination of factors including changing of
equipment or the environment. The 28 participants who volunteered were all
confident with their skipping ability. Confidentiality was assured. Subjects
were randomly assigned to either a control or an experimental group with a monetary reward in the competition trial. Both used
the same type of skipping rope except the experimental group was coloured white to create self-doubt.
Performance was measured
using how many skips per minute. Measuring tools included the use of the SSCI
(State Sport Confidence Inventory) and an auditory probe in the skipping rope
to record the number of skips. The study used a mixed model analyses of variance
(ANOVA) on performance and showed a significant main effect for the
experimental group. Results from the study supported the initial hypothesis.
Post hoc tests showed a significant decrease in confidence but improvement in
performance, but only in the experimental group. Main limitations of this study
is the simplistic nature of the task as it has
no real carry-over to any sports. If it was applied to more complex tasks such
as golf or pole vault, then it would carry more weight. Also, there was little presence of
competition which would have increased anxiety and arousal levels leading to
the possible occurrence of yips being shown. A positive take from this is most
research states, when confidence is reduced, performance is reduced too
(Woodman & Hardy 2003). However, in this paper, performance was improved.
The literarure surrounding self-confidence, for the majority, leans towards reduced confidence means a decrease in performance
(Feltz 1988).
2.3 How to Detect
Yips in Golf
The purpose of the final paper, “How to Detect Yips in
Golf”, was to identify sensitive methods for detecting the yips and evaluating
its aetiology. Forty subjects volunteered who were split into affected and non-affected
yips groups. All participants were right handed which standardises the results.
Both groups completed a psychometric testing battery by performing putting
sessions in the labs. Groups answered questions on their yips and golfing experience
by completing an online survey measuring trait anxiety, perfectionism, stress
coping strategies, somatic complaints and movement and decision reinvestment.
Testing was done on
putting performance over 5 different conditions that might trigger the yips.
These conditions include both arms, under pressure, one arm, with a uni-hockey
racket and with latex gloves. Results recorded using EMG of the arm,
kinaesthetic parameters, putting performance and situational anxiety. The
experiment took place in the lab on a putting surface 1.5m in length. There was
a monetary incentive - for every ball the subject earned 1 Euro. All Euros
earned would be donated to a charity in Africa
which would create high pressure as there was a need to hole the putts for a
worthy cause.
Statistical tests ran included
MANOVA’s (Multivariate Analyses Of Variance), Greenhouse Giesser correlation
applied and follow up analyses of variance (ANOVA). With this being said one
study concluded that yips causes the golfer to change their putter face due to
them being aware of having yips, not due to the situation (high or low pressure
etc.) (Marquardt 2009).
2.4 Links between
Papers
All three papers used monetary
incentives to create a higher pressure situation which would bring on yips and choking.
Limitations of these studies are they are all controlled and not in the natural
environment. There is no real competition or audiences with them which reduces
the effect of yips, choking and anxiety levels. Yips can be divided into two
categories (Type 1 and Type 2) which the papers agree upon, and that yips are
heavily influenced by experience, age, ability, and each individual’s
state/trait anxiety.
3.0 Summary
Reviewing all the papers,
there is no standardized method to identifying and/or quantifying yips affected
golfers. The paper, “How to Detect Yips in Golf”, (Klampfl,
Lobinger & Raab 2013, was the first of its kind to combine an array of
psychometric and psychophysiological, behavioural and kinematic measures, to build up a picture of what yips actually is and
how it can present itself. Its recommendations
for future research include kinematics to investigate more into yips and
possible interventions to eliminate them. “The Yips in Golf” paper concluded
with future research towards determining how stress (which golfers experience) interacts with the factors
underlying Type 1 (dystonia) and Type 2 (choking) yips. This study provides evidence
to support Smith’s model.
More studies can lead to
a classification for golfers with yips which could provide a useful framework
for the appropriate management of yips symptoms. In the “Self-Confidence and Performance”
paper, future research lent towards looking at the effects of anxiety and
self-confidence on performance rather than each of these relationships in
isolation and apply them to a range of sporting situations.
In conclusion, from all
the papers reviewed, future investigations of yips should use an array of tests
to increase the validity and reliability of understanding and identifying yips
before creating suitable interventions. For future research, more studies need
to be done on both yips, choking and self-doubt. Then, once more literature has
been gathered, and there is a better testing battery to identify yips, then
sports science can start to test for yips and choking, not only in golfers, but
in a range of sports.
References
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Andrew Richardson, Founder of Strength is Never a Weakness Blog
I have a BSc (Hons) in Applied Sport Science and a Merit in my MSc in Sport and Exercise Science and I passed my PGCE at Teesside University.
Now I will be commencing my PhD into "Investigating Sedentary Lifestyles of the Tees Valley" this October 2019.
I am employed by Teesside University Sport and WellBeing Department as a PT/Fitness Instructor.
My long term goal is to become a Sport Science and/or Sport and Exercise Lecturer. I am also keen to contribute to academia via continued research in a quest for new knowledge.
My most recent publications:
My passion is for Sport Science which has led to additional interests incorporating Sports Psychology, Body Dysmorphia, AAS, Doping and Strength and Conditioning.
Within these respective fields, I have a passion for Strength Training, Fitness Testing, Periodisation and Tapering.
I write for numerous websites across the UK and Ireland including my own blog Strength is Never a Weakness.
I had my own business for providing training plans for teams and athletes.
I was one of the Irish National Coaches for Powerlifting, and have attained two 3rd places at the first World University Championships,
in Belarus in July 2016.Feel free to email me or call me as I am always looking for the next challenge.
Contact details below;
Facebook: Andrew Richardson (search for)
Facebook Page: @StrengthisNeveraWeakness
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Email: a.s.richardson@tees.ac.uk
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