Strength is Never a Weakness

Friday, 24 May 2019

Defining Arousal and Anxiety

Hello Everyone!

I hope all is well

Another new post on the blog, this time it is on arousal and anexiety. This is a poster presentation converted into a blog post.

The poster was co - produced by myself, Connaugh Pearce and Callum Wilksinson. It was part of our first year foundation psychology module on the Applied Sport Science course.

Hope you enjoy reading it

Like, share and comment!

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Abstract

This poster presentation attempts to explain how anxiety and arousal affects sports performance.

It looks at models such as reversal theory, catastrophe theory, and the employing of the CSAI-2 test (competitive state anxiety inventory) in giving a better understanding of mood states (paratelic, telic) on performance, and the state of mind risk athletes and non-risk athletes are in. From each of the three studies investigated, male and female participants were used along with amateur and elite standard athletes.

Athletes found that performers in a paratelic state performed much better than those in the telic state when testing their maximum strength. It was also found that there was a negative relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance in athletes, but a positive relationship between self-confidence and performance.

From this analysis the moderator variables for the cognitive anxiety performance relationship were sex and standard of competition. To conclude, from the studies shown, all of the theories confirmed that arousal and anxiety have a major impact on sports performance.

Introduction

The aim of this poster presentation is to explain the relationship between arousal and anxiety on sports performance, and study the positive or negative emotional states on performance.

Arousal can be defined as, a general physiological and psychological activation, varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement (Gould, Weinberg, 2011, p.78). Arousal is viewed as a mixture of psychological and physiological activity in a person, and can be viewed as a positive aspect of stress. The amount of arousal experienced by a person can be a motivator to change, whether this is a performance increase or improved learning of a task. However, too much or too little of arousal can work against the performer, therefore it is crucial to reach a mid-point so there is an optimal level achieved.

Anxiety is viewed as a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension are associated with activation or high levels of arousal in the body (Gould, Weinberg, 2011). There are different forms of anxiety; trait anxiety is where the person experiences worry and a feeling of nervousness in different situations. These high levels of anxiety experienced by the person are due to their personality.

On the other hand, state anxiety is felt in response to a specific situation; it is anxiety related to a specific mood state (Richard, C, 2002). These two levels of anxiety are linked, as a person with high levels of trait anxiety will also experience high levels of state anxiety. The relevance of these areas of study to athletes is extremely important in enhancing their sporting performance, as it aims to illuminate the relation between anxiety and arousal. This relationship, if fully understood, can help athletes to psych up and perform better, rather than psyching out and performing poorly (Gould, Weinberg, 2011).

During this presentation the area being explored will be how arousal can function to the advantage of one person, but on the other hand have a detrimental effect to another. Also, what effects do the fluctuations in anxiety levels, within a person, have on sporting performance?

Article: Arousal seeking in sports participants

Paratelic and Telic dominance was the key assessor in this study. The article seeks out to find what state of mind risk athletes and non-risk athletes are in, Paratelic or telic state of dominance. This would determine in the end which of the two types of athletes are arousal seekers or arousal avoiders also. They used the TDS (Telic dominance scale) to conduct and analyse their results which is a 42 item scale comprised of 3 subscales, Seriousmindness, planning orientation and arousal avoidance.

Three studies were conducted, the first was 102 Australian Males split into 3 groups, 2 groups doing High-Risk Sport and the remaining group doing a Low-Risk sport, the second study consisted of 56 Dutch Males, again split into 3 groups, 2 HR activity and the remaining LR activity. The final study was one where sporting glider pilots and a controlled group of non-sporting members were used, it was trying to find out how arousal differs in age. The hypothesis was based on the theory named ‘Reversal Theory’.

Article: The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes

The study was looking at the reversal theory research to see if high arousal levels contribute to inhibited athletic performance. They used 22 male and 6 female elite level athletes and divided them into paratelic (non-goal directed and processed focused) and telic groups (goal directed) each subjected to scripts of these states. Each group whilst listening to their script will perform a max hand grip test. Guided imagery techniques where sued to change physiological and psychological arousal levels.

Results showed significant increases in strength when in the paratelic state (high positive arousal) compared to the telic state. Heart rate and other indicators of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system were not found to mediate between psychological arousal and performance. They used the following tests, Telic State Measure, Visual Analogue Scale, Tension and Effort Stress Inventory and the Motivational Style Profile Questionnaire.

Article: The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis

During this study the meta analysis investigated two relationships in competitive sport: 1) state cognitive anxiety with performance and 2) state self-confidence with performance. This relationship has been investigated in much detail over a number of years, with researchers attempting to clarify this with several models and theories. The study used both male and female participants and standard of competition they performed at, which gave significant moderating variables for the relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance.

The studies were conducted through the use of the CSAI-2 (competitive state anxiety inventory) which is the most effective questionnaire for researching the relationship between cognitive anxiety, self-confidence and sport performance. Of the 43 studies reporting a relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance, 60% reported a negative relationship and 23% reported a positive relationship. The same 43 studies also reported a relationship between self-confidence and performance, where 76% reported a positive relationship and 10% reported a negative relationship.

Results

The results taken from all three studies in this article were based on findings and scores taken from the TDS, (Telic Dominance Scale). From Study 1 results found that from three of the sports studied, two of them (Surfing & Sailboarding) had a close relationship, maintaining a fairly low score of 12.28 and 12.61, while the other in question (Weight Lifting) had a much higher overall score of Mean 15.68.

From Study 2, subscales were brought into action where they found that planning orientation and serious-minded had no significant difference from the three groups tested. Although from the arousal-avoidance subscale, they found much lower scores from what they believe to be the ‘high-risk’ sports than those of the marathon runners. This in turn strongly influenced the overall score for telic dominance, where the marathon runners scored higher once again than the risk sport performers.

From Study 3, glider pilots and a control group of non-sporting participants were tested. Similar results from study 2 were found in this study where planning orientation and serious-minded subscales had no significant differences in order to draw to a final conclusion. Although once again to back-up Study 2, the glider pilots scored considerably lower on arousal avoidance than the control group.

The study “The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes” based its hypothesis on the Reversal Theory. 28 elite athletes in the experimental group and 28 volunteers in the control group. The athletes showed greatest handgrip strength performance following the paratelic induction. This supports the study’s original hypothesis as well as previous reversal theory research. Two of the three remaining hypotheses based on reversal research were also supported.

Participants experienced greater levels of anxiety during the telic induction and greater levels of excitement during the paratelic induction. Elite level athletes where more telic dominant than controls was as expected and replicates research (Kerr 1987). Strength was superior when in paratelic state but strength never improved during study. High felt arousal and high hedonic tone was critical for best strength performance.

From the results conducted in the Woodman and Hardy (2003) study, it reported a relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance. 26 of the 43 studies reported a negative relationship, 7 reported non-significant results and 10 reported a positive relationship. Of the studies reporting a relationship between self-confidence and performance, 32 reported a positive relationship, 6 reported non-significant results and 4 reported a negative relationship. The cognitive anxiety and self-confidence mean effect sizes were greater for high standard athletes in comparison to low standard athletes. The possible reason for this being that high standard level of performance is typically associated with increased pressure.

Discussion

From the results of the study ‘The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes’ has found it is clear that arousal can either have a positive or negative effect on an athlete’s performance. The study showed that being in two different states of arousal can affect their sporting performance (max strength test on a handgrip). Athletes need to be in a positive frame of mind to promote better performance; this frame of mind has to be a high paratelic state of arousal. Reversal theory is linked heavily between two of three studies mentioned above and is shown to have a great influence on an athlete’s arousal and anxiety levels.

The relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance and also state self-confidence in relation to performance has been investigated in much detail over a number of years. Researchers have attempted to clarify this with several models and theories. The meta-analysis, conducted by Woodman and Hardy, aimed to examine the fundamental predictions of multidimensional anxiety theory, investigating if cognitive anxiety has a negative relationship with performance and that self-confidence has a positive relationship with performance. The study used both male and female participants and standard of competition they performed at, which gave significant moderating variables for the relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance.

This meta-analysis has revealed that both cognitive anxiety and self-confidence are significantly related to competitive sport performance. It has also revealed that the mean effect sizes for cognitive anxiety and self-confidence were significantly higher for men than for women, which was also true for high standard athletes compared to low standard. The possible reason for this being that high standard level of performance is typically associated with increased pressure. It was also found that high standard athletes operate within a more controlled personal environment in comparison to amateur competitors- this is to say that athletes of a high level are more likely to be in ‘control’. From these findings, it is reasonable to expect that the effect of self-confidence and cognitive anxiety upon performance will be clearer with elite athletes.

There is still much research to be conducted in the Woodman and Hardy study, with the most responsive and controlled theoretical models being the processing efficiency theory, which is based on the relationship between performance effectiveness on the one hand and the amount of effort or resources used to attain that level of performance on the other hand (Derekshan, Eysenck, 2009). And also the catastrophe model, which attempts to predict human behaviour and performance rather than attempting to explain how it occurs.

From each of the three studies studied in Arousal Seeking in Risk Sport Participants there were trends in all three where Telic dominance was noticeably linked with what was categorised as the Low-Risk sports evaluated in each study. Also the Paratelic dominance was noticeably linked with the High Risk Sport evaluated such as Parachuting and Motor-Racing. From these results we could come to a conclusion that High risk sports would lean more towards the Paratelic Dominance which in turn would mean that the participants would be more inclined to participate in arousal seeking activity, whereas the Low Risk sport participants would be more inclined to participate in arousal avoiding situations/activity. Performance will change in different activities and situations, especially in high risk and low risk activity due to the arousal levels. As mentioned above arousal can have a positive or negative effect of sporting performance, this all depends on the type of sport or activity being performed. Low arousal may help improve concentration, as it was found in the weight lifting in study 1, also arousal may improve motivation which could be helpful to a parachutist.

To avoid elevated levels of anxiety an optimal arousal or inverted U approach would emphasize reducing anxiety by reducing or controlling arousal. Results in this experiment ‘The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes’ suggest that if athletic task involves more explosive type maximal strength effort a decrease in arousal may inhibit performance. Therefore an approach based on reversal theory principles would be to train athletes to switch or reverse to a paratelic motivational state. This would avoid the need to reduce anxiety by lowering arousal, as lowering arousal may also affect performance negatively.

To summarise the material gathered we can conclude that arousal and anxiety play a crucial part in an athlete’s sporting performance. Judging by the material looking at Telic/Paratelic states and cognitive and state anxiety. The optimal combination of emotions needed for best performance will not necessarily occur at the midpoint of the arousal-state continuum and performance depends on the level of cognitive state anxiety a performer exhibits. (Gould, Weinberg, 2011, p99)

References

Kerr, J. H. (1991). ‘Arousal-seeking in risk sport participants’. Journal of applied sport psychology. 12 (6) 613-616

Perkins, D, Wilson, G.V, Kerr, J. H (2001). ‘The effects of elevated arousal and mood on maximal strength performance in athletes’. Journal of applied sport psychology. 13 (3) 239-259

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. 5^th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies

Weinberg, R.S, Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. 4^th edn. Leeds: Human Kinetics

Woodman, T, Hardy, L. (2003). ‘The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis’. Journal of sports sciences. 21: 443-457

Andrew Richardson, Founder of Strength is Never a Weakness Blog

I have a BSc (Hons) in Applied Sport Science and a Merit in my MSc in Sport and Exercise Science and I passed my PGCE at Teesside University.

Now I will be commencing my PhD into "Investigating Sedentary Lifestyles of the Tees Valley" this October 2019.

I am employed by Teesside University Sport and WellBeing Department as a PT/Fitness Instructor.

My long term goal is to become a Sport Science and/or Sport and Exercise Lecturer. I am also keen to contribute to academia via continued research in a quest for new knowledge.

My most recent publications:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1752928X19300216

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1752928X19301076

My passion is for Sport Science which has led to additional interests incorporating Sports Psychology, Body Dysmorphia, AAS, Doping and Strength and Conditioning.

Within these respective fields, I have a passion for Strength Training, Fitness Testing, Periodisation and Tapering.

I write for numerous websites across the UK and Ireland including my own blog Strength is Never a Weakness.

I had my own business for providing training plans for teams and athletes.

I was one of the Irish National Coaches for Powerlifting, and have attained two 3rd places at the first World University Championships,

in Belarus in July 2016.Feel free to email me or call me as I am always looking for the next challenge.

Contact details below;

Facebook: Andrew Richardson (search for)

Facebook Page: @StrengthisNeveraWeakness

Twitter: @arichie17

Instagram: @arichiepowerlifting

Snapchat: @andypowerlifter

Email: a.s.richardson@tees.ac.uk

Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/andrew-richardson-b0039278

Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Richardson7

Monday, 22 April 2019

Strength and Conditioning Training for Boxing

Introduction

The component of fitness which will be reflected and critiqued is “power” in relation to elite amateur boxers who all compete in the middleweight category (69-75kg). This element of fitness will be put into a specific periodised plan for the boxers during a one year training cycle (macrocycle). Power can be defined as “explosive power is force applied multiplied by movement velocity” (Newton, 1994). Power is interconnected with various components of fitness including strength - “the ability to exert force under a variety of biomechanical conditions” (Carroll, 2001). The strength associated with boxing and power is known as “Relative Strength” which can be described as “the ability to work against one’s body weight” (Komi 1993). Another element of fitness which power is related to is speed which can be described as “the rate of distance travelled measured either at an instant or over a duration, and or the rate of muscular contraction (Moffroid & Kusiak 1975).”

Image Credit: https://www.unknownmale.com/what-is-boxing-training-should-i-take-it-up/

Needs Analysis

The sport of boxing is a contact sport with two people contesting in the ring where athletes use head-guards and gloves (Jako 2002). For men, it is three rounds of three minutes and for women, four rounds of two minutes. Between each round is a minutes rest. The scoring system is determined by how many successful punches to the opponent’s head or on the torso (above the belt).

The rounds can vary regarding due to the fighters’ boxing styles and are usually of a high intensity. Amateur boxers can fight every 2-3 weeks depending on the level of the athlete and they would use the PCr System and Anaerobic Glycolysis heavily with moderate demand for aerobic metabolism (Capello 2011). There is an increase in heart rate and blood lactate over each round. During a fight, boxers’ maximum blood lactate and maximum heart rate can reach values between 8.24 mmol/l and 178 beats/min (Ghosh et al 1995; Gosh 2010). Boxers’ VO₂ max levels can vary between 57-64 ml/kg/min depending on the weight class of the boxer (Khanna & Manna 2006).

Looking at the nutritional requirements of a boxer, they must be within their own weight class. When they fight they will usually be at their lightest as they drop weight to make their category. A range of methods is used to drop weight and attain a very low body-fat percentage. This sometimes has serious detrimental performance consequences such as hormonal imbalance and loss of strength (Hall & Lane 2001).

The movements of a boxer requires triple extension regardless of what form of punch as it requires movement from the ankles/knees/hips/trunk/scapula and arms. This full body movement requires compound training movements (Turner 2009). Common injuries for a boxer include hand/wrist/shoulder/elbow. The head needs to be strengthened through doing eccentric training of the neck. A boxer stands with hands high, elbows in, with the feet maintaining a stance where maximum power can be achieved when carrying out a punching action.

Training recommendations for an amateur boxer for the development of power include:

- Resistance Training (Strength Training)

Using bodyweight or free weight exercises to increase muscular strength and power. This will help increase the efficiency of the Central Nervous System (CNS) in recruiting more motor units to produce a more powerful contraction. There are many forms of resistance training including isotonic, isometric and Time Under Tension (TUT) to achieve strength/power/hypertrophy goals (Gentil et al 2006).

Boxers performing a resistance based programme will be working on the power component. This is a very important aspect of fitness as it links in strength, speed, agility, coordination and balance. If a boxer can improve his/her power output, it will have a positive knock-on effect to the other fitness components (Baker & Newton 2005; Aagaard et al 2002).

- Plyometric Training

Complex training methods (Ebben & Watts 1998) will be used to help develop explosive power and encourage Type 2 A fibres to take on characteristics of Type 2 B Fast twitch fibres. An example of complex training is combining two exercises - one of which is a strength exercise, the other is a plyometric exercise. Numerous studies have shown that plyometric training has a positive improvement on upper and lower body power development especially for boxing (Blakey & Southard 1987; Baker et al 2001 & Lyttle et al 1996).

- Upper and Lower Body Training Splits (heavy/light days and deload week)

This is to alternate the days to allow for specific high intensity days followed by active recovery days. Upper and lower body split days means time can be dedicated specifically to developing power in certain areas. Other days can include full body movements such as Olympic lifting.

- Technical Work

This is to further develop power and injury prevention through improved punching styles. One of the main areas of focus is the jab as it can be used as an offence or a defence option (Hickey 1980).

Boxers need to do a lot of posterior work to balance out the anterior muscular development of their bodies. This is to prevent injury and have good posture. Work focusing around the scapula and trunk will be the most important. A better technique will result in a more accurate punch with a higher maximal velocity.

When training the boxers, certain variables will have to be taken into account such as their physical age, training age, actual ability, previous injuries and what time, space and equipment is available. All the training will be specific (specificity principle applied) with sensible volume/intensity levels so adaptation can occur and reversibility will be avoided.

Each boxer’s own training plan will be devised specifically as everyone will react differently to a stimulus. Individuality refers to how an athlete reacts “individually” to a training stimulus. This can be hormonally and/or psychologically.

A boxer will need to cover many aspects of fitness due to the nature of the game demands including power, flexibility, aerobic capacity and strength. Reviewing the different forms of periodisation, a conjugate approach to training is optimum for a boxer as it works on a component of fitness, but maintains the others during a prescribed training block.

Image Credit: https://www.sportintense.com/posts/boxing-slip-rope-training/

Fitness Testing

Before a programme can be started, fitness testing is done so that strengths and weaknesses can be identified. It also allows evaluation of the athlete for coaches to prescribe training interventions. The following tests should be used for power:

Functional Movement Screen (FMS) is to assess a boxer’s mobility and flexibility. The Push Up test will show strength endurance which can be defined as “the ability to effectively maintain muscular functioning under work conditions of long duration” (Siff, 2004).

The Medicine Ball Throw and Vertical Jump would be utilised to record power output for upper and lower bodies respectively.

The FMS is to be used with caution as it is very subjective. It can only be valid if the same person assesses the participants or the data is useless (Hoover et al 2008). It is a reliable fitness test as it can highlight where athletes struggle to produce an effective movement pattern (Minick et al 2010).

1RM (Repetition Maximum) Maxes for a range of exercises such as bench press/clean/snatch/overhead squat would also be incorporated as well as Anthropometric Skin Fold Tests to record body fat percentages. To be noted, Technical Error of Measure (TEM) has to be considered and applied when taking measurements.

These fitness tests are reliable and valid from the following references which all proved that the assessments cited are of credible worth. (Baumgartner et al 2002; Stockbrugger & Haennel 2001; Aragon 2000).

Warm-up & Cool-down

A warm up must be done to facilitate performance and to reduce any chance of injury. Mild warming has been reported to reduce resistance within a joint by ~20% (Wright & Johns, 1961). It is reported that as “Muscle temperature increases so too does nerve conductivity” (Karvonen, 1992). This is especially important for a boxer as they want to have quick reactions to avoid a blow and to be able to quickly make a punch. A warm up should get the athlete ready for the main task and replicate what he/she is going to do. Its optimal duration is 10 – 20 minutes (Bishop, 2003)

A cardiovascular warm up could include a low intensity jog over a period of 5-10 minutes, gradually increasing the intensity and speed. Skipping can be another alternative. In relation to mobility exercises, no static stretching should be done before a session. It must be completed after otherwise this will dampen the stretch reflex. If this is compromised, then speed, strength, power and agility are all affected. Reduced Power output may be due to not being able to fully recruit the muscle (Behm et al 2001) fatigue (Smith 1994).

The last part of the warm up should be skill specific and replicate the game demands. This will include some sparring for the boxers. This can reduce muscle stiffness post competition known as Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS). It allows the CNS to recover and relax (Smith and Reilly 2004). Static stretching should be done after training. Regular stretching resets stretch-reflex to a higher level causing muscles to relax further into a stretch (Wolpaw and Carp, 1990) which will lead to an increase in flexibility.

Image Credit: http://trackandfielddrills.com/striders/

Periodisation & Tapering

A periodised power programme will be incorporated because it will yield better results and performance gains as the training is systematically planned in accordance to set goals (Rhea & Alderman 2004). By planning a training cycle this will eliminate any chance of an athlete reaching the state of been over trained (Fry et al 1992). There are 3 groups of Periodisation Methods: Sequential Method, Concurrent and Conjugate Sequence Systems.

Conjugate is the most advanced method of periodisation (Verkhoshansky 2006). It is based upon the premise that the elite athlete is unable to optimally adapt and recover from large numbers of stimuli (abilities) at the same time. Elite athletes need to concentrate on loading a particular ability. However, this method will lead to decreases in other underdeveloped necessary abilities. The solution is to develop one ability while maintaining all others with minimal volume. Hence why a conjugate style is used to work on specific components of fitness during set blocks of training whilst maintaining other physiological adaptations (Plisk & Stone 2003).

A power training session will be based around using exercises that are compound movements working in the range of speed, strength development and explosive power. These exercises will have a small volume but be of a high intensity nature, either using heavy loads or short rest periods. To develop power, a periodised approach needs to be taken as it incorporates strength training heavily. Strength training, being predominately neural, requires a periodised approach as the CNS will fatigue very quickly and motor units will not fire correctly (Fleck 1999).

The microcycle for a week will include heavy, moderate and light days so the boxer doesn’t show any signs of overtraining (Bradley-Popovich 2001). A mesocycle can be defined as a number of continuous weeks where the training program emphasis is on the same type of physical adaptations (Willoughby 1993). E.g. Strength and Power Phase - three weeks of training with a deload week which would vary in intensities to allow for CNS to adapt or to recover.

A macrocycle refers to an annual plan that works towards peaking for the competition of the year (Plisk & Stone 2003). There are three phases in the macrocycle: preparation, competition, and transition. The overall yearly plan will be based around competitions, training and tapering for these events. Tapering is defined by Mujika as “a progressive non-linear reduction in the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physical and psychological stress of daily training and optimise sports performance” (Mujika 2000).

Munijka summarises that a taper will minimise fatigue and improve fitness, maintain training intensity, reduce training volume by 41-60%, maintain training frequency at >80%, individualise taper duration between 4 and 28 days, use progressive tapering designs, and expect performance improvements of around + 3% (Muijka and Padilla 2003).

If volume load is not quantified for the subject, then any potential power improvement made may be due to another factor. More importantly, we don’t want to burn an athlete out or lead to overtraining/overreaching unintentionally. The external stress (the weight x sets x reps) will be recorded to gauge when an athlete feels good or fatigued. The physiological stress (internal load) will be quantified for participants using the modified resistance training Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) method (Genner & Weston 2014). This method is RPE x Duration of work (Foster et al 2001), duration for work only (Genner & Weston 2014). Boxers will be subjected to using the centimax scale (Borg et al 2013).

For these boxers a number of RPEs will be taken. These include -

- Standard RPE for total fatigue

- Technical RPE for how good they rated their movements

- Upper Body RPE for upper body fatigue

- Lower Body RPE for lower body fatigue

A yearly training cycle would look like this -

- Base Phase 4 weeks (strength/hypertrophy phase)

- General Pre-Comp Phase 4 weeks (Strength/Power phase)

- Specific Pre-Comp Phase 4 weeks (Power phase, reduced volume intensity is highest)

- Competition Phase of 36 weeks (maintenance of adaptions working more on skills)

- Active Recovery 4 weeks (reduced intensity and volume to allow for full recovery)

(Baechle et al 2008, Bompa et al 2005 and Fleak et al 2014)

Recovery & Injury Prevention

Ice baths are used to flush out lactic acid and get fresh blood into the muscles to aid in the healing process. This is very important as they want to get rid of any bruising from a previous fight. The cold temperature constricts the blood vessels flushing the waste by-products away and speeds up the healing process (Higgins et al 2011). Recovery drinks with the necessary nutritional requirements, aid their training demands. These can include carbohydrate and protein shakes. Sports massages are used post training to help speed up recovery as deep tissue massage can be used to remove any tightness and increase range of movement around a joint.

Boxers may want to watch their diet closely as they are in a weight class sport. Creatine loading could be an option to increase ATP stores during the power/strength phase. This will allow higher intensity work be done. However, it should be noted, that some people may be non-responders to using creatine and have no performance gain (Syrotuik & Bell 2004).

The last thing that coaches must not do, is to over train the boxers and cause a decrease in health and performance. This being in the period of overreaching which can be used as an intentional phase of training to encourage the super compensation (Kreider et al., 1998) model to occur.

Summary

By reviewing all of the literature, it can be concluded that power is an important part of a boxer’s training regime as it influences many other components of fitness. The research shown throughout this essay proves that by doing complex training which incorporates resistance and plyometric training, power will increase. Performing exercises that will increase power is important, however, doing them in similar planes of movement to an actual fight, is sports specific and will yield the greatest carryover. If all of the above is followed, the boxer’s performance will improve in a steady, planned manner with adequate recovery periods to allow for rest and regeneration for any training session or fight.

References

1. Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E. B., Andersen, J. L., Magnusson, P., & Dyhre-Poulsen, P. (2002). Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93(4), 1318-1326

2. Aragon, L. F. (2000). Evaluation of Four vertical jump tests: Methodology, Reliability, Validity, and Accuracy. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science. 4(4), 215-228.

3. Baechle T, Earle R, Wathen D. (2008). Resistance Training In: BaechleT, Earke R, editors. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Human Kinetics; Champaign. Pp. 381-412.

4. Baker, D., & Newton, R. U. (2005). Methods to Increase the Effectiveness of Maximal Power Training for the Upper Body. Strength & Conditioning Journal,27(6), 24-32.

5. BAKER, D., NANCE, S., & MOORE, M. (2001). The load that maximizes the average mechanical power output during explosive bench press throws in highly trained athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 15(1), 20-24.

6. Baumgartner, T. A., Oh, S., Chung, H., & Hales, D. (2002). Objectivity and Reliability and Validity for a revised push up test protocol. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 6(4), 225-242.

7. Behm, D. G., Button, D. C., & Butt, J.C. (2001). Factors affecting force loss with prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 26(3), 262-272.

8. Bishop, D. (2003). Warm Up II. Sports Medicine. 33(7), 483-498.

9. Blakey, J. B., & Southard, D. (1987). The combined effects of weight training and plyometric on dynamic leg strength and leg power. J Appl Sport Sci Res, 1(1), 14-6.

10. Bompa, T. O., & Carrera, M. (2005). Periodization Training for Sports (Vol. 3). Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics.

11. Borg. E, Stenling. A, Olsson. J, C and Molander. B. (2013). Regulating force in putting by using the Borg CR100 Scale. Frontiers in Psychology. Volume 4 (82).

12. Bradley – Popovich, G. E. (2001). Nonlinear Versus Linear Periodization Models. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 23(1), 42.

13. Burke, L. M., Kiens, B. and Ivy, J. L. (2004). Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 1, 15-30.

14. Capello, G. (2011). Amateur boxing – Needs analysis and strength training recommendations. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 19(2), 38-60.

15. Carroll, T.J, Riek, S. & Carson, R.G. (2001). Neural Adaptions to Resistance Training: Implications for Movement Control. Sports Med, 31, pp. 829-840.

16. Cormie, P., McCaulley, G. O., Triplett, N. T., and McBride, J. M. (2007). Optimal loading for maximal power output during lower body resistance exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39 (2), 340-49.

17. Ebben. W.P & Watts. P.B (1998). A Review of Combined Weight Training and Plyometric Training Methods: Complex Training. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 20(5), 18-27.

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